Open Access
Parents’ Sociodemographic Characteristics and Childhood Vaccine Hesitancy in The United Kingdom
4
PhD, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Health, Wellness and Life Sciences, Leeds Trinity University, SSS Partnership, Birmingham Campus, United Kingdom; and PENKUP Research Institute, Birmingham, United Kingdom
Abstract
Background: Vaccine hesitancy is a growing public health concern, undermining efforts to achieve optimal immunisation coverage. This study explores the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics and vaccine hesitancy among parents of children aged 0 to 6 years in the United Kingdom.
Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 818 parents and guardians recruited using convenience and snowball sampling. Data were collected via an online questionnaire hosted on Qualtrics, assessing sociodemographic factors and attitudes toward childhood vaccinations using the validated Parent Attitudes about Childhood Vaccines (PACV) scale. Scores ranged from 0 to 100, with scores above 50 indicating vaccine hesitancy. Descriptive and inferential analyses, including regression and ANOVA, were performed using SPSS to identify key determinants of hesitancy.
Results: Parents' sociodemographic characteristics, including age, ethnicity, and political ideology, significantly influenced vaccine hesitancy. Older parents and those identifying as "White Other" exhibited the highest levels of hesitancy. Distrust in healthcare systems and concerns over vaccine safety were major contributing factors. Participants relying on social media for vaccine information demonstrated higher hesitancy rates, emphasizing the role of misinformation. No significant differences in hesitancy were observed by income or education level.
Conclusion: Addressing vaccine hesitancy requires targeted public health strategies, including culturally sensitive communication, improved healthcare accessibility, and combating misinformation. This study underscores the importance of tailoring interventions to specific sociodemographic groups to enhance vaccine uptake and protect public health.
Keywords
Vaccines,
Hesitancy,
Parents,
Health,
Sociodemographics
References
Alsubaie, S. S., Gosadi, I. M., Alsaadi, B. M., et al., (2019) Vaccine hesitancy among Saudi parents and its determinants: Result from the WHO SAGE working group on vaccine hesitancy survey tool, Saudi Medical Journal, 40(12), p.1242.
Anastasiou, O.E. and Heger, D., (2021). Understanding the influence of individual and systemic factors on vaccination take-up in European citizens aged 55 or older. Vaccines, 9(2), p.169.
Azizi, M. F. S., Y. Kew, and F. M. Moy, (2017) Vaccine hesitancy among parents in
a multi-ethnic country, Malaysia, Vaccine, 35(22): pp. 2955–2961.
Baumgaertner, B., Carlisle, J. E. and Justwan, F., (2018) The influence of political ideology and trust on willingness to vaccinate, PloS One, 13(1), p.e0191728.
Bocquier, A., L. Fressard, and S. Cortaredona, (2018) Social differentiation of vaccine hesitancy among French parents and the mediating role of trust and commitment to health: A nationwide cross-sectional study, Vaccine, 36, pp. 7666–7673.
Bults, M., Beaujean, DJMA, de Zwart O, et al., (2011) Perceived risk, anxiety, and behavioural responses of the general public during the early phase of the Influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in the Netherlands: results of three consecutive online surveys, BioMedCentral Public Health 2011, 11:2.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023). Fast Facts on Global Immunization. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/global-immunization/fast-facts/index.html, [Accessed: 14/01/2025]
Chow, M. Y. K., Danchin, M., Willaby, H. W., Pemberton, S., and Leask, J., (2017) Parental attitudes, beliefs, behaviours and concerns towards childhood vaccinations in Australia: A national online survey, Australian family physician, 46(3), pp.145-151.
Desmond, H. and Dierickx, K., (2021) Research integrity codes of conduct in Europe: Understanding the divergences, Bioethics, 35(5), pp.414-428.
Etikan, I., Alkassim, R. and Abubakar, S., (2016) Comparison of snowball sampling and sequential sampling technique, Biometrics and Biostatistics International Journal, 3(1), p.55.
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, (2017) Catalogue of interventions addressing vaccine hesitancy. Stockholm: ECDC; 2017.
Fine, P., Eames, K., and Heymann, D. L., (2011) “Herd immunity”: a rough guide. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:911–16.
Gilkey, M. B., McRee, A. L., and Brewer, N. T., (2013) Forgone vaccination during childhood and adolescence: findings of a statewide survey of parents, Preventive Medicine, 56:202–6.
Goodwin, R. D., Stanley, O., Gaines, J. R., et al., (2010) Initial psychological responses to swine flu, International Journal of Behavioural Medicine 2010.
GOV.UK (2021). List of Ethnic Groups. [online] GOV.UK. Available at: https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/style-guide/ethnic-groups/, (Accessed: 18 August 2025).
Hoffman, B. L., Felter, E. M., Chu, K. H., et al., (2019) It’s not all about autism: The emerging landscape of anti-vaccination sentiment on Facebook, Vaccine. 2019;37(16):2216–23.
Idowu, T.O., Obohwemu, K.O. and Iyevhobu, K.O., 2024. Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Mothers towards Childhood Vaccination in Lagos State, Nigeria. International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health Research, 5(09), pp.69-100.
Karafillakis, E., Dinca, I., Apfel, F., et al., (2016) Vaccine hesitancy among healthcare workers in Europe: a qualitative study. Vaccine. 2016; 34(41): 5013-20.
Kata, A, (2012) Anti-vaccine activists, web 2.0, and the postmodern paradigm – an overview of tactics and tropes used online by the anti-vaccination movement, Vaccine 2012;30:3778–89.
Khatatbeh, M., Albalas, S., Khatatbeh, H., Momani, W., Melhem, O., Al Omari, O., et al. (2022). Children’s rates of COVID-19 vaccination as reported by parents, vaccine hesitancy, and determinants of COVID-19 vaccine uptake among children: a multi-country study from the Eastern Mediterranean Region. BMC Public Health, 22, 1375. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13798-2.
Khosravi, M., (2020) Perceived risk of COVID-19 pandemic: The role of public worry and trust, Electronic Journal of Geneal Medicine, 2020; 17 (4): em203.
Lin, C., Tu, P., Beitsch, L.M., (2021). Confidence and receptivity for Covid-19 vaccines: a rapid systematic review. Vaccines 9, 1–32. Vaccines (Basel). 2020 Dec 30;9(1):16. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9010016.
MacDonald, N. E., SAGE Working Group on Vaccine Hesitancy, (2015) Vaccine hesitancy: definition, scope and determinants. Vaccine. 2015;33:4161–64.
Marti, M., de Cola, M., MacDonald, N. E., Dumolard, L., and Duclos, P., (2017) Assessments of global drivers of vaccine hesitancy in 2014-looking beyond safety concerns. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0172310.
Martinelli, M. and Veltri, G.A., (2022). Shared understandings of vaccine hesitancy: How perceived risk and trust in vaccination frame individuals’ vaccine acceptance. PloS one, 17(10), p.e0276519.
Moser, C. A., D. Reiss, and R. L. Schwartz, (2015) Funding the costs of disease outbreaks caused by non-vaccination, Journal of the American Society of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 43(3),633 – 647.
NHS Digital (2024) Childhood Vaccination Coverage Statistics, England, 2023–24. [online] NHS Digital. Available at: https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/nhs-immunisation-statistics/england-2023-24 [Accessed 17 Sep. 2025].
Obohwemu, K., Christie-de Jong, F. and Ling, J., (2022). Parental childhood vaccine hesitancy and predicting uptake of vaccinations: a systematic review. Primary Health Care Research & Development, 23, p.e68.
Obohwemu, K.O., (2024a). Improving Maternal Awareness and Childhood Vaccination Uptake in Delta State, Nigeria. International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health Research, 5(12), pp.37-57.
Obohwemu, K.O., (2024b). Maternal Attitudes Towards Childhood Vaccination in Delta State, Nigeria. Frontline Medical Sciences and Pharmaceutical Journal, 4(12), pp.43-66.
Obohwemu, K.O., (2025). Prevalence of Vaccine Hesitancy Towards Childhood Vaccinations Among Parents in the United Kingdom. Frontiers in Medical and Clinical Sciences, 2(10), pp.11-27.
Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2021a) Ethnic group, Census 2021. [online]. Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS021/editions/2021/versions/1?showAll=ethnic_group_tb_20b#ethnic_group_tb_20b, (Accessed: 18 August 2025).
Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2021b). Coronavirus and vaccine hesitancy, Great Britain: 13 January to 7 February 2021. Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/healthandwellbeing/bulletins/coronavirusandvaccinehesitancygreatbritain/13januaryto7february2021#glossary, (Accessed: 18 August 2025).
Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2021c). People identifying as ‘Other White’ has increased by over a million since 2001 - Office for National Statistics. [online] Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/peopleidentifyingasotherwhitehasincreasedbyoveramillionsince2001/2015-06-26, (Accessed: 18 August 2025).
Omer, S. B., D. A. Salmon, W. A. Orenstein, M P. deHart, and N. Halsey, (2009) Vaccine Refusal, Mandatory Immunization, and the Risks of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, New England Journal of Medicine, 360, pp. 1981-1988.
Opel, D. J., et al. (2011a) Development of a survey to identify vaccine-hesitant parents: The parent attitudes about childhood vaccines survey, Human Vaccines, 2011;7(4):419–25.
Opel, D. J., et al. (2011b) Validity and reliability of a survey to identify vaccine-hesitant parents, Vaccine 2011;29(38):6598–605.
Opel, D. J., J. A. Taylor, C. Zhou, S. Catz, M. Myaing, and R. Mangione-Smith, (2013) The relationship between parent attitudes about childhood vaccines survey scores and future child immunization status: a validation study, JAMA Paediatrics, 167(11), pp. 1065–1071.
Parker, C, Scott, S and Geddes, A (2019) Snowball Sampling. SAGE Research Methods Foundations. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/211022791.pdf, [Accessed: 15/01/2015].
Patelarou, E., Galanis, P., Mechili, E.A., Argyriadi, A., Argyriadis, A., Asimakopoulou, E., Brokaj, S., Bucaj, J., Carmona-Torres, J.M., Cobo-Cuenca, A.I. and Doležel, J., (2021). Factors influencing nursing students' intention to accept COVID-19 vaccination: A pooled analysis of seven European countries. Nurse education today, 104, p.105010.
Paterson, P., Chantler, T. and Larson, H.J., (2018) Reasons for non-vaccination: Parental vaccine hesitancy and the childhood influenza vaccination school pilot programme in England, Vaccine, 36(36), pp.5397-5401.
Public Health England, (2014) Why vaccinate? Public Health Matters, Available at: https://publichealthmatters.blog.gov.uk/2014/05/01/why-vaccinate/, (Accessed: 01/01/2019).
Public Health England. (2023). The complete routine immunisation schedule. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-complete-routine-immunisation-schedule, [Accessed: 15/01/2025].
Quinn, S. C., Kumar, S., Freimuth, V. S., Kidwell, K., and Musa, D., (2009) Public willingness to take a vaccine or drug under emergency use authorization during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, Biosecurity and bioterrorism: biodefense strategy, practice and science, 7:275-290.
Reiter, P. L., Pennell, M. L., Katz, M.L., (2020) Acceptability of a COVID-19 vaccine among adults in the United States: How many people would get vaccinated? Vaccine, 38:6500–6507.
Rubin, G. J., Amlôt, R., Page, L., and Wessely, S., (2009) Public perceptions, anxiety, and behaviour change in relation to the swine flu pandemic: cross sectional telephone survey, The British Medical Journal 2009, 339:b2651.
Schwarzinger, M., Watson, V., Arwidson, P., Alla, F., & Luchini, S. (2021). COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in a representative working-age population in France: A survey experiment based on vaccine characteristics. The Lancet Public Health, 6(4), e210-e221. doi: 10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00012-800012-8).
Siegrist, M., Luchsinger, L. and Bearth, A., (2021) The impact of trust and risk perception on the acceptance of measures to reduce COVID‐19 cases, Risk Analysis, 41(5), pp.787-800.
Stewart, J. and Sayer, L., (2021). What factors influence measles, mumps and rubella vaccine hesitancy among parents? A systematic review. British Journal of Child Health, 2(3), pp.143-152.
Tran, B. X., Boggiano, V. L., Nguyen, L. H., et al., (2018) Media representation of vaccine side effects and its impact on utilization of vaccination services in Vietnam, Patient Prefer Adherence, 2018; 12: 1717–28.
Tsuzuki, S., M. Baguelin, R. Pebody, and E. van Leeuwen, (2020) Modelling the optimal target age group for seasonal influenza vaccination in Japan. Vaccine. 2020 Jan 22;38(4):752-762. Doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.11.001. Epub 2019 Nov 15.
UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) (2025) MMR2 coverage by year. [online] UKHSA Data Dashboard. Available at: https://ukhsa-dashboard.data.gov.uk/metrics-documentation/mmr2-coverage-by-year [Accessed 17 Sep. 2025].
United Nations Children’s Fund, (2019) Over 20 million children worldwide missed out on measles vaccine annually in past 8 years, creating a pathway to current global outbreaks – UNICEF. Press Release, 25th April 2019, Available at: https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/over-20-million-children-worldwide-missed-out-measles-vaccine-annually-past-8-years, (accessed: 12/12/2019).
Urrunaga-Pastor, D., Bendezu-Quispe, G., Herrera-Añazco, P., Uyen-Cateriano, A., Toro-Huamanchumo, C. J., Rodriguez-Morales, A. J., et al. (2021). Cross-sectional analysis of COVID-19 vaccine intention, perceptions and hesitancy across Latin America and the Caribbean. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 41, 102059. doi: https://10.1016/j.tmaid.2021.102059.
Wagner, A. L., Masters, N. B., Domek, G. J., Mathew, J. L., Sun, X., Asturias, E. J., & Boulton, M. L. (2021). Comparisons of vaccine hesitancy across five low- and middle-income countries. Vaccines, 7(4), 155. doi: https://10.3390/vaccines7040155.
World Health Organization. (2019a). Ten threats to global health in 2019. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019/, [Accessed: 14/01/2025].
World Health Organization. (2019b). Vaccines: 2018 immunization coverage estimates. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/immunization-coverage, [Accessed: 14/01/2025].
World Health Organisation, (2019c) Immunisation, Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/facts-in-pictures/detail/immunization, (Accessed: 26/05/2022).
World Health Organisation, (2019d) Measles cases spike globally due to gaps in vaccination coverage, Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-11-2018-measles-cases-spike-globally-due-to-gaps-in-vaccination-coverage, (accessed: 29/07/19).
World Health Organization. (2023). Vaccines and immunization. Available at: https:// www.who.int/health-topics/vaccines-and-immunization/, [Accessed: 14/01/2025].
Zona, S., Partipilo, F., Zizza, A., Guido, M., & Quaranta, A. (2021). Vaccine hesitancy and trust in the health authorities in Italy. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 770985. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.770985.
Most read articles by the same author(s)
- Muxtor Suvonovich Khalilov, Erkin Abdimuminov, Importance, Biology, And Cultivation Technology Of Cabbage , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 01 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 01
- Lukas Schneider, Hanna Voge, Markus Reinhardt, Pervasive Vision-Based System for Simultaneous Physiological Parameter Tracking in Intensive Care Units: A Dual-Site Clinical Evaluation , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 02 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 02
- Dr. Kaveh Rahmani, Dr. Leila Norouzi, Integrated Retail Marketing Strategy Model for MSME Sales Optimization: A Synthesis of Relationship Marketing, 7P Marketing Mix, and Digital Promotion Approaches , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 03 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 03
- Dr. Ibrahim Al-Ghamdi, Dr. Noor Al-Mutairi, Modeling the Effects of COVID-19 Disruption on Productivity and Business Sustainability of Food and Beverage MSEs: Evidence from Langsa City, Aceh Province , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 03 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 03
- Waqar Ashraf, The Impact of Project Management on Project Sustainability in the Construction Industry of the UK , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 04 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 04
- Dr. Chinedu Okafor , Prof. Amina Bello , Sustainable Heavy Metal Remediation Framework Using Activated Groundnut Shell–Derived Adsorbents: Optimization and Performance Evaluation for Pb and Cd Ion Elimination in Aqueous Systems , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 04 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 04
- Dr. Haruto Nakamura, Dr. Yuki Matsumoto, Hybrid Attention-Convolution Framework with Shape-Sensitive Optimization for Improved Three-Dimensional Partitioning in Medical and Cellular Imaging , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 02 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 02
- Dr. Helena Moreau, Public Health Risk Reduction And Sustainable Energy Transition As Twin Pathways To Long-Term Human Well-Being: An Integrative Analysis Of Smoking, Alcohol Use, And Renewable Development , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 02 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 02
- Dr. Arvind K. Sharma, Integrated Modeling and Optimization of Plant-Derived Bioinsecticides and Green Nanotechnology Approaches for Environmentally Safe Crop Protection , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 04 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 04
- Dr. Omid Fattahi, Dr. Narges Hosseini, Computational Evaluation of Zirconia-Doped B₂O₃–Bi₂O₃–MgO–PbO Glass Systems for Advanced Radiation Shielding Performance Using XCOM and Phy-X/PSD Simulation Tools , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 03 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 03
Similar Articles
- Leonard Nnamdi Meruo, Paul Mbaya, Kennedy Oberhiri Obohwemu, Gordon Mabengban Yakpir, Celestine Emeka Ekwuluo, Kenneth Oshiokhayamhe Iyevhobu, Daniel Ikechukwu Oseji, Efe Clement Abel, Oluwafemi Emmanuel Ooju, Eddy Eidenehi Esezobor, Solomon Atuman, Chisom Lucky Emeka, Jennifer Adaeze Chukwu, Eke Desmond Onyebuchukwu, Health Workers’ Strike and Healthcare Delivery in Nigeria: A Conceptual Examination of System Disruption in a Resource-Constrained Setting , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 02 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 02
- Barakat Kofoworola Alaaya, Khadijat Abdulwasiu, Favour Oritsetsemaye Edema, Ifeanyi Kenneth Akwukwaegbu, Olajumoke Oluwatosin Olojede, Omosalewa Olamiposi Alade, Thelma Oluchi Onuoha, Kennedy Oberhiri Obohwemu, Eddy Eidenehi Esezobor, Olusegun Timothy Ojetola, Jennifer Chinemerem Ezema, Hendrith Esene, Menstrual Hygiene Awareness, Knowledge and Sources of Information among Female Adolescents in Secondary Schools in Suburban Edo State, Nigeria , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 05 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 05
- Randa Mahmoud, Abdulsalam Saleh, Mousa S.M.Gaballah, Detection of Salmonella in shawarma sandwiches sold in restaurants in Al Bayda, Libya, during the year 2023 , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 2 No. 01 (2024): Volume 02 Issue 01
- Sandra Chinyeaka Nwokocha, Kennedy Oberhiri Obohwemu,, Gordon Mabengban Yakpir, Fidelis Evwiekpamare Olori, Christian Atabong Nchindia, Charles Leyman Kachitsa, Olusunmola Osinubi, Bartholomew Ituma Aleke, Aliyuda Ali, Ibrahim Olanrewaju Lawal, Iyevhobu Oshiokhayamhe Kenneth, Oluwadamilola R. Tayo, Rupali Chauhan, Shubham Sharma, Divya Motupalli, Aung Htet Sai Bo Bo, Samuel Oluwatosin Adejuyitan, Onomuighokpo Hillary Onome, Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Higher Education: Towards Inclusive, Ethical, and Employability-Driven Learning Ecosystems , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 3 No. 02 (2025): Volume 03 Issue 02
- PENKUP Collaboration, Knowledge and Cognitive Determinants of Health-Seeking Behaviour Among Healthcare Professionals in a Nigerian Tertiary Hospital: A Behavioural Science Perspective , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 01 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 01
- Carlos A. Mendoza, METABOLIC, SEASONAL, AND DIAGNOSTIC DETERMINANTS OF GESTATIONAL DIABETES MELLITUS: AN INTEGRATIVE ANALYSIS OF MATERNAL ADIPOSITY, SCREENING PARADIGMS, AND DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 01 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 01
- Dr. Helena Moreau, Public Health Risk Reduction And Sustainable Energy Transition As Twin Pathways To Long-Term Human Well-Being: An Integrative Analysis Of Smoking, Alcohol Use, And Renewable Development , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 02 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 02
- Dr. Teguh Santosa, Advanced Analytical Framework for High-Performance Work Systems and Workload Intensification: Investigating Mediating Mechanisms and Moderating Effects on Occupational Health and Employee Well-Being , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 4 No. 03 (2026): Volume 04 Issue 03
- Teshale adere senbenta, Review On Epidemiology, Economic And Public Health Importance Of Small Ruminant Brucellosis , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 2 No. 01 (2024): Volume 02 Issue 01
- Dr. Elias J. Moreno, Perinatal and Gestational Determinants of Long-Term Neurodevelopmental Trajectories in Children with Microcephaly: A Retrospective Cohort Study in a Rural Tertiary Care Setting , Critique Open Research & Review: Vol. 3 No. 05 (2025): Volume 03 Issue 05
1-10 of 15
Next
You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.